Tulving (1985)

How many memory systems are there?

American Psychologist, 40(4), 385-398

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DOI

Abstract

Proposes a ternary classificatory scheme of memory in which procedural, semantic, and episodic memory constitute a monohierarchical arrangement. In this scheme, episodic memory is a specialized subsystem of semantic memory, which in turn is a specialized subsystem of procedural memory. The 3 memory systems differ from one another in a number of ways, including the kind of consciousness that characterizes their operations. The ternary scheme overlaps with dichotomies and trichotomies of memory proposed by others. Evidence for multiple systems is reviewed, and illustrative data are provided from experiments. Direct priming effects were found to be both functionally and stochastically independent of recognition memory.

Reference

Tulving, E. (1985). How many memory systems are there? American Psychologist, 40(4), 385–398.

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Semantic Knowledge Memory Systems

Definition

Tulving proposed semantic memory as one of three memory systems (procedural, semantic, episodic), with episodic memory a specialized subsystem of semantic memory, and argued that the systems differ in the kind of conscious awareness that goes with retrieval: knowing a fact versus re-experiencing the occasion it was learned